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Arguing in a circle is another form of the same fallacy. It assumes what is awaiting
proof. For example, to the question, "How do you find the velocity of light?" the reply
might be given, "We find that from the distance of the stars". If the questioner continued,
"How do you know the distance of the stars?" and the reply was, "We know that from
the velocity of light", the whole process would simply be arguing in a circle.
English lends itself particularly to the fallacy of "Begging the question" as it abounds
in synonyms derived from several languages. A writer who begins in plain Anglo-Saxon,
and proceeds in language derived from Latin, should be watched--for he may be telling
you nothing, when he appears most erudite. If, for example, he says that "life is a vital
force", he has merely repeated the idea of "life" in two languages.
(5) The fallacy called ignotatio elenchi is simply arguing beside the point, distracting
the attention by irrelevant considerations. We quote Minto here:--
"We should hold the point clearly in our minds, and watch indefatigably for
corroborating propositions. But none of us being capable of this, all of us being subject
to bewilderment by a rapid whirl of statements, and all of us biased more or less for or
against a conclusion, the sophist has facilities for doing two things--taking for granted
that he has stated the required premises petitio principii and proving, to perfect
demonstration, something which is not the point in dispute, but which we are willing to
mistake for it."
John Stuart Mill gives the following classification that may prove useful in further
studies:--
Fallacies.
(1) F. A PRIORI.
OF SIMPLE INSPECTION . . . . .
\ INDUCTIVE F. \ (2) F. of OBSERVATION.
/ FROM
/ (3) F. of GENERALIZATION.
/
EVIDENCE
\
DISTINCTLY / DEDUCTIVE F. (4) F. of RATIOCINATION.
\
\ CONCEIVED. /
OF INFERENCE / FROM
\
/ EVIDENCE
\
(5) F. of CONFUSION.
\ DISTINCTLY /
\ CONCEIVED. /
The fallacy a priori is the argument from cause to effect. The fallacy of observation
is illustrated by the excitement caused when an "Old Moore's prophecy" comes true, and
the complete non-observation of the scores of "prophecies" that never approach
fulfillment. The fallacy of generalization we have considered under the heading,
Non-sequitur ("It does not follow."). The fallacies of ratiocination are examples of
faulty logic. The fallacies of confusion we have already dealt with under various other
terms.
We shall have to deal with this important phase of our study again, approaching it
from other angles.